Black Athena
938 pages, 5 3/16 x 8
Paperback
Release Date:14 Feb 2020
ISBN:9781978804272
Hardcover
Release Date:14 Feb 2020
ISBN:9781978807167
Black Athena
The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization Volume II: The Archaeological and Documentary Evidence
Rutgers University Press, Rutgers University Press Classics
Winner of the 1990 American Book Award
What is classical about Classical civilization? In one of the most audacious works of scholarship ever written, Martin Bernal challenges the foundation of our thinking about this question. Classical civilization, he argues, has deep roots in Afroasiatic cultures. But these Afroasiatic influences have been systematically ignored, denied or suppressed since the eighteenth century—chiefly for racist reasons.
The popular view is that Greek civilization was the result of the conquest of a sophisticated but weak native population by vigorous Indo-European speakers—Aryans—from the North. But the Classical Greeks, Bernal argues, knew nothing of this “Aryan model.” They did not see their institutions as original, but as derived from the East and from Egypt in particular.
In an unprecedented tour de force, Bernal links a wide range of areas and disciplines—drama, poetry, myth, theological controversy, esoteric religion, philosophy, biography, language, historical narrative, and the emergence of “modern scholarship.”
This volume is the second in a three-part series concerned with the competition between two historical models for the origins of Greek civilization. Volume II is concerned with the archaeological and documentary evidence for contacts between Egypt and the Levant on the one hand, and the Aegean on the other, during the Bronze Age from c. 34000 BC to c. 1100 BC. These approaches are supplemented by information from later Greek myths, legends, religious cults, and language. The author concludes that contact between the two regions was far more extensive and influential than is generally believed. In the introduction to this volume, Bernal also responds to some reviews and criticism of Volume I of Black Athena.
What is classical about Classical civilization? In one of the most audacious works of scholarship ever written, Martin Bernal challenges the foundation of our thinking about this question. Classical civilization, he argues, has deep roots in Afroasiatic cultures. But these Afroasiatic influences have been systematically ignored, denied or suppressed since the eighteenth century—chiefly for racist reasons.
The popular view is that Greek civilization was the result of the conquest of a sophisticated but weak native population by vigorous Indo-European speakers—Aryans—from the North. But the Classical Greeks, Bernal argues, knew nothing of this “Aryan model.” They did not see their institutions as original, but as derived from the East and from Egypt in particular.
In an unprecedented tour de force, Bernal links a wide range of areas and disciplines—drama, poetry, myth, theological controversy, esoteric religion, philosophy, biography, language, historical narrative, and the emergence of “modern scholarship.”
This volume is the second in a three-part series concerned with the competition between two historical models for the origins of Greek civilization. Volume II is concerned with the archaeological and documentary evidence for contacts between Egypt and the Levant on the one hand, and the Aegean on the other, during the Bronze Age from c. 34000 BC to c. 1100 BC. These approaches are supplemented by information from later Greek myths, legends, religious cults, and language. The author concludes that contact between the two regions was far more extensive and influential than is generally believed. In the introduction to this volume, Bernal also responds to some reviews and criticism of Volume I of Black Athena.
Martin Bernal’s Black Athena is nothing short of a monumental achievement in scholarship that re-oriented and transformed serious study of ancient civilizations. It remains a soaring accomplishment of classical erudition of the Afroasiatic foundation of Greek history.
In a spectacular undertaking, Martin Bernal sets out to... restore the credibility of what he calls the Ancient Model of the beginnings of Greek civilizations... Bernal makes an exotic interloper in Classical studies. He comes to them with two outstanding gifts: a remarkable flair for the sociology - perhaps one should say politics - of knowledge, and a formidable linguistic proficiency... The story told by Bernal, with many fascinating twists and turns and quite a few entertaining digressions, is... a critical inquiry into a large part of the European imagination... a retrospect of ingenious and often sardonic erudition.
An astonishing work, breathtakingly bold in conception and passionately written... salutary, exciting, and, in its historiographical aspects, convincing.
A work which has much to offer the lay reader, and its multi-disciplinary sweep is refreshing: it is an important contribution to historiography and the sociology of knowledge, written with elegance, wit, and self-awareness... a thrilling journey... his account is as gripping a tale of scholarly detection and discovery as one could hope to find.
Bernal's material is fascinating, his mind is sharp, and his analyses convince.
A formidable work of intellectual history, one that demonstrates that the politics of knowledge is never far from national politics.
His book should be welcome to both classicists and ancient historians, most of whom will, now at least, be inclined to agree with him.
Bernal's work and the stir it has occasioned have caused ancient historians and archaeologists to undertake a major reexamination of methods and motives.
Colossal.... Bernal aims to revise current understanding of Ancient Middle Eastern history by taking seriously the ancient Greeks' legends that portrayed much in their civilization as originating in the Middle East, especially Egypt.
Demands to be taken seriously... Every page that Bernal writes is educating and enthralling. To agree with all his thesis may be a sign of naivety, but not to have spent time in his company is a sign of nothing at all.
A serious work that deals in a serious way with many of the principal issues of Aegean history in the second millennium B.C., and one can ask little more of any historical work.
[Bernal's] multifaceted assault on academic complacency is an important contribution to the development of a more open, historical, and culturally oriented post-processual archaeology.
A breathtaking panoply of archaeological artifacts, texts, and myths.
Bernal's enterprise - his attack on the Aryan model and his promotion of a new paradigm - will profoundly mark the next century's perception of the origins of Greek civilization and the role of Ancient Egypt.
Challenges the racism implicit in the recent 'cultural literacy' movement.
A monumental and path-breaking work.
[Martin Bernal] has forced scholars to reexamine the roots of Western civilization.
Martin Bernal has managed to make the subject of Ancient Greece both popular and controversial.
Black Athena is a powerfully written and brilliantly researched book that relentlessly unveils the historical and cultural African origins of Western civilization. Still a must read for all those in search of truth.'
Bernal has ample justification for calling into question many widely accepted hypotheses…. He shows that Egypt and its culture were misrepresented or simply ignored by European writers.
Martin Bernal’s Black Athena is nothing short of a monumental achievement in scholarship that re-oriented and transformed serious study of ancient civilizations. It remains a soaring accomplishment of classical erudition of the Afroasiatic foundation of Greek history.
In a spectacular undertaking, Martin Bernal sets out to... restore the credibility of what he calls the Ancient Model of the beginnings of Greek civilizations... Bernal makes an exotic interloper in Classical studies. He comes to them with two outstanding gifts: a remarkable flair for the sociology - perhaps one should say politics - of knowledge, and a formidable linguistic proficiency... The story told by Bernal, with many fascinating twists and turns and quite a few entertaining digressions, is... a critical inquiry into a large part of the European imagination... a retrospect of ingenious and often sardonic erudition.
An astonishing work, breathtakingly bold in conception and passionately written... salutary, exciting, and, in its historiographical aspects, convincing.
A work which has much to offer the lay reader, and its multi-disciplinary sweep is refreshing: it is an important contribution to historiography and the sociology of knowledge, written with elegance, wit, and self-awareness... a thrilling journey... his account is as gripping a tale of scholarly detection and discovery as one could hope to find.
Bernal's material is fascinating, his mind is sharp, and his analyses convince.
A formidable work of intellectual history, one that demonstrates that the politics of knowledge is never far from national politics.
His book should be welcome to both classicists and ancient historians, most of whom will, now at least, be inclined to agree with him.
Bernal's work and the stir it has occasioned have caused ancient historians and archaeologists to undertake a major reexamination of methods and motives.
Colossal.... Bernal aims to revise current understanding of Ancient Middle Eastern history by taking seriously the ancient Greeks' legends that portrayed much in their civilization as originating in the Middle East, especially Egypt.
Demands to be taken seriously... Every page that Bernal writes is educating and enthralling. To agree with all his thesis may be a sign of naivety, but not to have spent time in his company is a sign of nothing at all.
A serious work that deals in a serious way with many of the principal issues of Aegean history in the second millennium B.C., and one can ask little more of any historical work.
[Bernal's] multifaceted assault on academic complacency is an important contribution to the development of a more open, historical, and culturally oriented post-processual archaeology.
A breathtaking panoply of archaeological artifacts, texts, and myths.
Bernal's enterprise - his attack on the Aryan model and his promotion of a new paradigm - will profoundly mark the next century's perception of the origins of Greek civilization and the role of Ancient Egypt.
Challenges the racism implicit in the recent 'cultural literacy' movement.
A monumental and path-breaking work.
[Martin Bernal] has forced scholars to reexamine the roots of Western civilization.
Martin Bernal has managed to make the subject of Ancient Greece both popular and controversial.
Black Athena is a powerfully written and brilliantly researched book that relentlessly unveils the historical and cultural African origins of Western civilization. Still a must read for all those in search of truth.'
Bernal has ample justification for calling into question many widely accepted hypotheses…. He shows that Egypt and its culture were misrepresented or simply ignored by European writers.
MARTIN BERNAL (1937-2013) was a British scholar of modern Chinese political history and a Professor of Government and Near Eastern Studies at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. His celebrated Black Athena trilogy is a controversial series which argues that Ancient Greek civilization and language are Eastern and Egyptian in origin.
\Preface and Acknowledgements
Transcription and Phonetics
Chronological Tables
Introduction
Intrinsic reasons for preferring the Revised Ancient Model to the Aryan one
Some theoretical considerations
A summary of the argument
Chapter I Crete before the palaces, 7000–2100 bc
The ‘diffusionist’ and ‘isolationist’ debate
Crete before the 21st century bc
Cretan religion in the Early Bronze Age
Conclusion
Chapter II Egypt’s influence on Boiotia and the
peloponnese in the 3rd millennium, I
The cultic, mythical and legendary evidence
Semelē and Alkmēnē
Athena and Athens in Boiotia: The cults of Athena
Itōnia and Athena Alalkomena
Nēit, the controller of water
The battles between Nēit and Seth, Athena and Poseidon
Poseidon / Seth
Nēit / Athena and Nephthys / Erinys
Herakles
Conclusion
Chapter III Egypt’s influence on Boiotia and the
peloponnese in the 3rd millennium, II
The archaeological evidence
Spartan archaeology: the tomb of Alkmēnē
The tomb of Amphion and Zēthos
The draining of the Kopais
Granaries
Irrigation and settlement in the Argolid
Drainage and irrigation in Arkadia
Parallels between Boiotian and Arkadian place names
Social and political structures in Early Helladic Greece
Other archaeological traces of Old Kingdom Egypt in
the Aegean
The end of Early Bronze Age ‘high’ civilization
Conclusion
Chapter IV The Old Palace Period in Crete and the
Egyptian Middle Kingdom, 2100 to 1730 bc
Early Minoan III – the Prepalatial Period
Lead and spirals
The Cretan palaces
Crètan writing systems
Cultic symbols in Early Palatial Crete
Possible Anatolian origins of the bull cult
Thunder and sex: Min, Pan and Bwäzä
Min and Minos
The case against Egyptian influence
Mont and Rhadamanthys
The survival of the bull cult — Cretan conservatism
Conclusion
Chapter V Sesōstris, I
The archaeological and documentary evidence for the
Greek accounts of his conquest
The discovery of the Mit Rahina inscription
The significance of the inscription as evidence for an
Egyptian empire in Asia during the Middle Kingdom
Senwosre and Sesōstris
The real and the fantastic in the Sesōstris stories
Middle Kingdom Egypt’s military capability
The background
Archaeological evidence for the campaigns
Was Sesōstris the destroyer?
Sesōstris in Thrace and Scythia?
Sesōstris in Colchis?
The evidence for Sesōstris’ ‘conquests’ from the Mit Rahina inscription
Conclusion
Chapter VI Sesōstris, II
The cultic, mythical and legendary evidence
The Egyptian tradition
The traditions of the Levant and Anatolia
Thrace and Scythia
Colchis: an Egyptian colony?
Mesopotamia and Iran
The Greek legends of Memnōn and his conquests of Anatolia
The case for an Egyptian conquest of Troy c. 1900 bc
Sesōstris / Senwosre and Amenemḥ’s conquests:
a summary of the evidence
Chapter VII The Thera eruption: from the Aegean to China
The controversy over dating
The eruption re-dated
The implications of the re-dating
Thera and Kalliste
Volcanic allusions in the Exodus story
Membliaros and the pall of darkness
The myth of Atlantis
The Hekla eruption in Iceland
China: the historiographical impact
The world-wide impact of the Thera eruption
Conclusion
Chapter VIII The Hyksos
The chronology of the 13th Dynasty: chaos in Egypt
The chronology of the 15th Dynasty: the beginnings of Hyksos rule
The Hyksos capital at Tell el Daba’a
The 400-year stela and the Temple of Seth
A chronological summary
Who were the Hyksos?
Different views on the origin and the arrival of the Hyksos
The Hyksos as a multinational corporation
Horses and chariots: Hurrians and Aryans
Hurrians and Hyksos
Hyksos material culture
The Hyksos and the biblical captivity or sojourn in Egypt
Conclusion
Chapter IX Crete, Thera and the birth of Mycenaean
culture in the i8th and 17th centuries bc
A Hyksos invasion?
The Cretan new palaces
The weapons of Crete in MMIII
The flying gallop, the sphinx and the griffin
Was there a Hyksos invasion of Crete c. 1730 bc?
The Hyksos in Thera?
The origins of Mycenaean civilization
The Aryanist Model of invasion
Between Aryan and Ancient: Frank Stubbings
Conclusion: a revision of the Ancient Model
Chapter X Egyptian, Mesopotamian and Levantine contacts with the Aegean
The documentary evidence
Egyptian place names referring to the Aegean
The etymology of Danaan
Documentary evidence for Egyptian relations with the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age
Accuracy and hybridism in Egyptian inscriptions and tomb paintings
Why did Cretan princes bring tribute to Egypt?
Dating the Mycenaean domination of Crete
Crete and Mycenaean missions to Egypt
The statue base of Amenōphis III
Contacts between Egypt and the Aegean in the late 18th and 19th Dynasties
A summary of the evidence from Egyptian documents and paintings
Mesopotamian and Ugaritic documents
Aegean documents
Conclusion
Chapter XI Egyptian and Levantine contacts with the Aegean, 1550–1250 bc
The archaeological evidence
Late Mycenaean Greece
The relative isolation of the Aegean 1550–1470 bc
Egyptian expansion from c. 1520 to 1420
Pelops and the Achaians: evidence from Anatolia
Pelops ‘the crown prince’?
The Achaians and the Danaans
Archaeological traces of the Achaians
Mycenaeans and Hittites
Ugarit and Cyprus
Mycenaean expansion and the conquests of Tuthmōsis III
The merchants of the Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age?
The Kaş shipwreck: the sailors
The Egyptian Thebes and Mycenae, 1420–1370 bc
The foundation deposit plaques
The vocabulary of trade
The decline of Egyptian influence on the Aegean 1370–1220 bc
Phi and Psi figurines and smiting gods
Canaanite jars
Ivory
Conclusion
Chapter XII The heroic end to the heroic age
The fall of Thebes, Troy and Mycenae 1250–1150 bc
Cylinder seals
The Boiotian Thebes and the Phoenicians’ arrival
Ancient chronographies
Kadmos and the alphabet
Kadmos and Danaos: Hyksos rulers
Problems in the writing of Linear B
The treasure of the Kadmeion
The Kassite connection
The destruction of Thebes
A brief survey of Trojan history
The date of the Trojan War
Thebes and Troy
The collapse of Mycenaean civilization
Conclusion
Conclusion
Maps and Charts
Notes
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
Transcription and Phonetics
Chronological Tables
Introduction
Intrinsic reasons for preferring the Revised Ancient Model to the Aryan one
Some theoretical considerations
A summary of the argument
Chapter I Crete before the palaces, 7000–2100 bc
The ‘diffusionist’ and ‘isolationist’ debate
Crete before the 21st century bc
Cretan religion in the Early Bronze Age
Conclusion
Chapter II Egypt’s influence on Boiotia and the
peloponnese in the 3rd millennium, I
The cultic, mythical and legendary evidence
Semelē and Alkmēnē
Athena and Athens in Boiotia: The cults of Athena
Itōnia and Athena Alalkomena
Nēit, the controller of water
The battles between Nēit and Seth, Athena and Poseidon
Poseidon / Seth
Nēit / Athena and Nephthys / Erinys
Herakles
Conclusion
Chapter III Egypt’s influence on Boiotia and the
peloponnese in the 3rd millennium, II
The archaeological evidence
Spartan archaeology: the tomb of Alkmēnē
The tomb of Amphion and Zēthos
The draining of the Kopais
Granaries
Irrigation and settlement in the Argolid
Drainage and irrigation in Arkadia
Parallels between Boiotian and Arkadian place names
Social and political structures in Early Helladic Greece
Other archaeological traces of Old Kingdom Egypt in
the Aegean
The end of Early Bronze Age ‘high’ civilization
Conclusion
Chapter IV The Old Palace Period in Crete and the
Egyptian Middle Kingdom, 2100 to 1730 bc
Early Minoan III – the Prepalatial Period
Lead and spirals
The Cretan palaces
Crètan writing systems
Cultic symbols in Early Palatial Crete
Possible Anatolian origins of the bull cult
Thunder and sex: Min, Pan and Bwäzä
Min and Minos
The case against Egyptian influence
Mont and Rhadamanthys
The survival of the bull cult — Cretan conservatism
Conclusion
Chapter V Sesōstris, I
The archaeological and documentary evidence for the
Greek accounts of his conquest
The discovery of the Mit Rahina inscription
The significance of the inscription as evidence for an
Egyptian empire in Asia during the Middle Kingdom
Senwosre and Sesōstris
The real and the fantastic in the Sesōstris stories
Middle Kingdom Egypt’s military capability
The background
Archaeological evidence for the campaigns
Was Sesōstris the destroyer?
Sesōstris in Thrace and Scythia?
Sesōstris in Colchis?
The evidence for Sesōstris’ ‘conquests’ from the Mit Rahina inscription
Conclusion
Chapter VI Sesōstris, II
The cultic, mythical and legendary evidence
The Egyptian tradition
The traditions of the Levant and Anatolia
Thrace and Scythia
Colchis: an Egyptian colony?
Mesopotamia and Iran
The Greek legends of Memnōn and his conquests of Anatolia
The case for an Egyptian conquest of Troy c. 1900 bc
Sesōstris / Senwosre and Amenemḥ’s conquests:
a summary of the evidence
Chapter VII The Thera eruption: from the Aegean to China
The controversy over dating
The eruption re-dated
The implications of the re-dating
Thera and Kalliste
Volcanic allusions in the Exodus story
Membliaros and the pall of darkness
The myth of Atlantis
The Hekla eruption in Iceland
China: the historiographical impact
The world-wide impact of the Thera eruption
Conclusion
Chapter VIII The Hyksos
The chronology of the 13th Dynasty: chaos in Egypt
The chronology of the 15th Dynasty: the beginnings of Hyksos rule
The Hyksos capital at Tell el Daba’a
The 400-year stela and the Temple of Seth
A chronological summary
Who were the Hyksos?
Different views on the origin and the arrival of the Hyksos
The Hyksos as a multinational corporation
Horses and chariots: Hurrians and Aryans
Hurrians and Hyksos
Hyksos material culture
The Hyksos and the biblical captivity or sojourn in Egypt
Conclusion
Chapter IX Crete, Thera and the birth of Mycenaean
culture in the i8th and 17th centuries bc
A Hyksos invasion?
The Cretan new palaces
The weapons of Crete in MMIII
The flying gallop, the sphinx and the griffin
Was there a Hyksos invasion of Crete c. 1730 bc?
The Hyksos in Thera?
The origins of Mycenaean civilization
The Aryanist Model of invasion
Between Aryan and Ancient: Frank Stubbings
Conclusion: a revision of the Ancient Model
Chapter X Egyptian, Mesopotamian and Levantine contacts with the Aegean
The documentary evidence
Egyptian place names referring to the Aegean
The etymology of Danaan
Documentary evidence for Egyptian relations with the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age
Accuracy and hybridism in Egyptian inscriptions and tomb paintings
Why did Cretan princes bring tribute to Egypt?
Dating the Mycenaean domination of Crete
Crete and Mycenaean missions to Egypt
The statue base of Amenōphis III
Contacts between Egypt and the Aegean in the late 18th and 19th Dynasties
A summary of the evidence from Egyptian documents and paintings
Mesopotamian and Ugaritic documents
Aegean documents
Conclusion
Chapter XI Egyptian and Levantine contacts with the Aegean, 1550–1250 bc
The archaeological evidence
Late Mycenaean Greece
The relative isolation of the Aegean 1550–1470 bc
Egyptian expansion from c. 1520 to 1420
Pelops and the Achaians: evidence from Anatolia
Pelops ‘the crown prince’?
The Achaians and the Danaans
Archaeological traces of the Achaians
Mycenaeans and Hittites
Ugarit and Cyprus
Mycenaean expansion and the conquests of Tuthmōsis III
The merchants of the Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age?
The Kaş shipwreck: the sailors
The Egyptian Thebes and Mycenae, 1420–1370 bc
The foundation deposit plaques
The vocabulary of trade
The decline of Egyptian influence on the Aegean 1370–1220 bc
Phi and Psi figurines and smiting gods
Canaanite jars
Ivory
Conclusion
Chapter XII The heroic end to the heroic age
The fall of Thebes, Troy and Mycenae 1250–1150 bc
Cylinder seals
The Boiotian Thebes and the Phoenicians’ arrival
Ancient chronographies
Kadmos and the alphabet
Kadmos and Danaos: Hyksos rulers
Problems in the writing of Linear B
The treasure of the Kadmeion
The Kassite connection
The destruction of Thebes
A brief survey of Trojan history
The date of the Trojan War
Thebes and Troy
The collapse of Mycenaean civilization
Conclusion
Conclusion
Maps and Charts
Notes
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
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